'Brief History of Art Therapy\r'

'A BRIEF HISTORY OF finesse THERAPY Randy M. Vick This muniment of machination therapy focuses on the prophetic and continuing trends that micturate wrought the theory and radiation diagram and the books that considers this cultivation. Scholarship, like narration, builds on the derrieres l financial aid by some differents. I am indebted to the authors of four opposite histories that I found to be p stratagemicularly expedient in the preparation of this chapter.\r\nBoth Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) subscribe to assembled histories ground on contributing trends, as did Junge and Asawa (1994) who have pro-vided grand details on the personalities and politics involved in the ecesis of the Ameri e wileh-closet maneuveristic overlapionistry Therapy Association. My fourth capital source (MacGregor, 1989), while never in drawed as a book about machination therapy, has proven to be an excel-lent â€Å"prehistory” of the guinea pig. Each of these referenc es provided information as intumesce as inspiration and I come on readers to consult them for additional sides.\r\nFin altogethery, it should be noted here(predicate) that guile therapy was not a phenomenon exclusive to the f alone in States. Readers interested in imposture therapys development in europium should consult Wallers (1991, 1998) two books on this subject. record is like a tapis with individually blue thread contributing not only to the formation of the image but to the strength and structure of the sensible itself. Imagine for a moment a tapestry with bobbins of different-colored threads, each adding a hue that becomes p fraud of a refreshful creation, and we can better understand the history of this field.\r\nINFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST AND NEIGHBORING FIELDS contrivanceifice lock therapy is a hybrid discipline establish primarily on the fields of ruse and psychology, drawing characteristics from each pargonnt to evolve a unique natural entit y. But the inter weaving of the crafts and meliorate is hardly a naked phenomenon. It seems clear that this spousal consanguinity is as old as human purchase order itself, having occurred repeatedly throughout our history across blot and c contrivanceridge holder (Malchiodi, 1998).\r\nThe development of the profession of graphics therapy can be seen as the formal activity of a long-standing human tradi-tion influenced by the intellectual and social trends of the twentieth century (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or Art Art making is an innate human courseency, so more than so it has been argued that, like speech and tool making, this bodily process could be employ to define our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his book, The breakthrough of the Art of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a history of the interplay of invention and psychology spanning the withstand 300 historic period.\r\nThis history covers theories of genius and insanity, biographies o f â€Å" tender” artists, depictions of madness by artists, and the unhomogeneous attempts to reach an concord of the potential art has as an aid to amiable wellness handling and diagnosis. In 1922, German headhunter Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) published The Artistry of the Men-tally III, a book that render and draw the artistic productions of residents of in-sane asylums across Europe. This train challenged twain(prenominal) psychiatric and fine arts master keys to reconsider their notions of affable illness and art (MacGregor, 1989).\r\n counterbalance today, debate rages indoors the field variously titled outsider art/art brut/visionary art/ phratry art as experts struggle to place work by self-taught artists (some of whom have experienced psychogenic illness) indoors the art historical canon (Borum, 1993/1994; Russell, 2002). Contemporary put outrs from art therapy and other disciplines conduct to explore the notion of art practice for the purpose of pers onal exploration and egress (Alien, 1995; Cameron & Bryan, 1992; C.\r\nMoon, 2002) and to reevaluate the traditional boundaries among personal and commonaltyaltyplace art (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999; Sigler, 1993; Spaniol, 1990; Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and Rehabilitation Hospitals have long served as important incubators for the field of art therapy. For better or worse, aesculapian model concepts much(prenominal) as diagnosis, disease, and intervention have had a strong influence on the development of most schools of thought at heart Hesperian psychotherapeutics, including art therapy.\r\nWhile psychiatry has always been the medical specialty most closely allied with the field, art therapists have worked with patients being treated for AIDS, asthma, burns, cancer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and other medical and rehabilitation needs (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our understanding of the interplay between biochemistry, psychical status, and cre ativity continues to evolve and a new medical specialty, arts medicine, has recently emerged 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). altogether this seems to suggest that art therapy will continue to have a character in exploring the connections between frame and mind.\r\nTRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY PSYCHOLOGY For much of human history psychical illness was regarded with fear and misunderstanding as a manifestation of either divine or demonic forces. Reformers such as Rush in the United States and Pinel in France made great strides in creating a more humane environment for their patients. Freud, Kris, and others contributed to this rehumanization by theorizing that rather than being random nonsense, the productions of fantasy revealed material information about the unique privileged human race of their maker (MacGregor, 1989; Rubin, 1999).\r\nBuilding on these theories, many writers began to prove how a specific sort of creative productâ€artâ€could be under-stood as an illustration of mental health or disturbance (Anastasi & Foley, 1941; Arnheim, 1954; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). Other authors began recognizing the po-tential art has as a tool inwardly treatment (Winnicott, 1971). Soon enough, the terminal â€Å"art therapy” began to be used to reveal a form of psychotherapy that slur art practices and interventions alongside talk as the primordial modality of treatment (Naumburg, 1950/1973).\r\nThe significance psychoanalytical writers displace on early(a) childhood experiences made the ford of these theories into education an easy one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). Some forward-moving educators placed extra emphasis on the role art played in the overall development of children (Cane, 1951/1983; Kellogg, 1969; Lowenfeld, 1987; Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the redress application of art within educational settings continues today (Anderson, 1978/1992; Bush, 1997; Henley, 1992).\r\nPSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND search In addi tion to analytic thinking and the rehumanization of people with mental illness, one of the strongest trends to emerge within modern psychology has been the focus on standardized methods of diagnostic judging and research. Whether discussing the work of a studio artist or the productions of a mentally ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both engage in the same psychic process, that is, â€Å"the placing of an inner experience, an inner image, into the outside world” (p. 115). This â€Å"method of hump” became the abstract foundation for a dazzling get d declare of so-called projective drawing sound judgments that evolved in psychology during the twentieth century (Hammer, 1958/1980). These simple paper-and-pencil â€Å"tests,” with their adjudge procedures and standardized methods of interpretation, became widely used in the valuation and diagnosis of children and adults and are still employed to a less(prenominal)er peak today (though often w ith revamped purpose and procedure). Two analogue themes from this era are the relatively unstructured methods of art judging (Elkisch, 1948; Shaw, 1934) and the various processiones to interpreting these productions (Machover, 1949/1980).\r\nThe impact of psychoanalysis on the early development of art therapy was pro-found. Hammers (1958/1980) standard book on drawing as a projective device illustrates the diversity within this area and the cellular inclusion of two chapters on art therapy by pioneering art therapist Margaret Naumburg demonstrates the crossover of influences. Many of the more common stereotypes about art therapy (specific, assigned drawings; finger word picture; and the role of the therapist in divining the â€Å"true signification” of the drawings) can, in fact, be traced directly to this era.\r\nNearly all the major art therapy writers from this time developed their protest methods of assessment consisting of batteries of art tasks with varying level s of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983; Kwiatkowska, 1978; Rubin, 1978/1984; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). Even today, the notion that artworks in some way reflect the psychic experience of the artist is a radical concept in art therapy. Despite this common history, in that respect are intelligibleions between the approach to assessment used in psychology and that found in art therapy.\r\nThe key difference is the art therapy perspective that the making and viewing of the art have intrinsical therapeutic potential for the client, a position not necessarily held by psychometricians. In addition, art therapists tend to use more varied and expressive materials and to deemphasize formalized verbal directives and stress the role of clients as interpreters of their own work. Finally, art therapists are withal quite seeming to improvise on the pro-tocol of standardized assessments to uit a particular clinical purpose (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An emerging theme in the p ublications is the unique role the creative arts therapies can play in the assessment and evaluation of clients (Bruscia, 1988; Feder & Feder, 1998). Contemporary developers of art therapy assessments have abandoned ortho-dox psychoanalytic approaches in favor of methods that emphasize the expressive potential 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988; Cox Frame, 1993; Gantt & Tabone, 1997; Landgarten, 1993; Silver, 1978/1989).\r\nEarly art therapy researchers as well as looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-cal approach for their research (Kwiatkowska, 1978). More recently, models from the behavioural sciences and other fields have been used as resources in conducting art therapy research (Kaplan, 2000; McNiff, 1998; Wadeson, 1992). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ruse THERAPY LITERATURE The development of any discipline is shell traced through the evolution of that fields literature. The historians convention of artificially dividing time into se gments is employed here to illustrate three phases of growth in the profession of art therapy.\r\nClassical extent (1940s to 1970s) In the middle of the 20th century a largely independent assortment of individuals began to use the term â€Å"art therapy” in their writings to describe their work with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to define a discipline that was distinct from other, older professions. Because in that respect was no formal art therapy training to be had, these early writers were trained in other fields and mentored by psychiatrists, analysts, and other mental health professionals.\r\nThe four leading writers universally recognize for their contributions to the development of the field during this period are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The fixed impact of their original works on the field is demonstrated by the fact that their writings continue to be used as original sources in present-day( a) art therapy literature. More than any other author, Naumburg is seen as the primary founder of American art therapy and is often referred to as the â€Å"Mother of Art Therapy” (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22).\r\n done her early work in the innovative Walden School, which she founded (along with her sister Florence Cane), and later in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write about what was to become known as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). Familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her â€Å"dynamically oriented art therapy” to be largely analogous to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients art productions were viewed as symbolic communication of unconscious material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the resolution of the transference. While Naumburg borrowed heavily from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different approach by adapting concepts from Freuds record theory to explain the art therapy process. Her â€Å"art as therapy” approach emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic potential in the art-making process and the central role the defense apparatus of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993).\r\nKramers (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as opposed to Naumburgs psychiatric emphasis) allows for more direct application of her ideas to educational settings. Ulmans most outstanding contributions to the field have been as an editor and writer. She founded The Bulletin of Art Therapy in 1961 (The American Journal of Art Therapy after 1970) when no other publication of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) published the first book of collected essays on art therapy that served as one of the few texts in the field for many years.\r\nHer gift as a writer was to pr ecisely synthesize and say multifactorial ideas. In her essay â€Å"Art Therapy: Problems of Definition,” Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburgs â€Å"art psychotherapy” and Kramers â€Å"art as therapy” models so clearly that it continues to be the definitive presentation of this core theoretical continuum. The last of these four remarkable women, Kwiatkowska, made her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought together her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for working with families through art (Kwiatkowska, 1978).\r\nLike Kramer, she had fled Europe at the time of World War II adding to the list of emigre thinkers who influenced the development of mental health disciplines in the United States. She excessively coauthored a victimize book that helped introduce the field of art therapy to the universal public (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). Each of th ese pioneers lectured widely on the study of art therapy and served as some of the fields first educators. It was likewise during this period that the first formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994; Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967).\r\nFinally, it is important not to forget the other early pioneers working in other parts of the country, such as Mary Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who made contributions to the maturation profession as well. 6 Middle geezerhood: Other Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through the mid-1980s saw the consequence of an increasing heel of publications that presented a broader range of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973; Landgarten, 1981; Levick, 1983; McNiff, 1981; Rhyne, 1973/ 1995; Robbins & Sibley, 1976; Rubin, 1978/1984; Wadeson, 1980), although psychoanalysis remained a dominant influence.\r\nThe development of the literature was also enriched during this period with the introduction of two new journals: Art Psychotherapy in 1973 (called The Arts in Psychotherapy after 1980) and Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing number of publications, along with the base of the American Art Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists tete-a-tete related professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). Contemporary Art Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal published an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), and Rubin (1999) notes that in that same year there were only 12 books written by art therapists, a number that crawled to 19 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this pace began to increase so that there are now more than 100 titles available. \r\nRubin (1999) also speculates that art therapists may be more cozy with an intuitive approach than other mental health practitioners because as artists they â€Å"pride themselves on their innate sensitivities, and tend to be antiauthoritarian and anti-theoretical” (p. 180). Recently, approximately 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American Art Therapy Association described their primary theoretical orientation as â€Å"eclectic,” the private largest percentage reported (Elkins & Stovall, 2000).\r\nThis position is in holding with one delineated by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be surprising in a field that itself draws from a variety of disciplines. The next five most frequently reported models: psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), fair game lens relations (4. 6%), art as therapy (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong emphasis on intrapsychic dynamics, and this cumulative 27. 6% suggests that much modern-day practic e is still conscious by generally psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000).\r\nIn a landmark book, Approaches to Art Therapy first published in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought together essays by authors representing the diversity of theoretical positions within the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are briefly summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his pursual (see Chapter 2, this volume) have been part of art therapy since the earliest days, although contemporary writers are more likely to apply call such as â€Å"transference” and â€Å"the defense mechanisms” to articulate a position rather than employ unspotted psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic language and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in psychoanalysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and object relations theory (Robbins) can also be found in the art therapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).\r\nWith his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was natural for Jungs concepts of analytical and archetypal psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). deform by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Schaverian (1992) all reflect this emphasis. humanistic APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a small number of art therapists operate from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, existential, and client centered; the highest response was to the first division with 2. 9).\r\nYet if these approaches can be defined as sharing â€Å"an optimistic view of human nature and of the human condition, seeing people in a process of growth and development, with the potential to take responsibleness for their fate” (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119 ), these figures belie a sentiment held by many art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has written from a general humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) have adapted ideas first articulated by Alfred Adier.\r\nOther models that fall under the humanistic heraldic bearing include existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. LEARNING AND developmental APPROACHES Perhaps because they are perceived to be mechanistic, those mental theories that emphasize learning tend to be less popular with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (2000) survey, cognitive- behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. Yet there are art therapy authors whose work has been informed by these theories. Silver (2000) has written extensively on assessment using a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is based in general systems theory. Art therapists working with children with ablaze and developmental disabilities have also adapted concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001; Williams & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).\r\nFAMILY THERAPY AND new(prenominal) APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987; Linesch, 1993; Riley & Malchiodi, 1994; Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowskas early family work, particularly in California where art therapists become licensed as marriage and family therapists. Riley (1999) also incorporates concepts from narrative therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). Relational (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and feminist (Hogan, 1997) approaches pass the hierarchy in the client/therapist relationship and empower-i ng the client and have also shaped contemporary art therapy practice.\r\nPublications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on spiritual and philosophical concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a reversal of the perceived trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and encouraged art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. Writings by Lachman-Chapin (1983); Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume); and C.\r\nMoon (2002) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 CONCLUSION Every art therapist knows there is much to be conditioned from the process of making an artwork as well as from standing back and viewing the faultless product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a dusty relic hung in a museum but a hold work in progress. There is pleasure in admiring the work that has already been done and excitement in the weaving. It is my hope that readers can appreciate the processes and the products that have shaped this profession. 10\r\n'